WEBVTT Kind: captions Language: en 00:00:00.950 --> 00:00:03.130 position:92% The View from Space: Tracking Forty Years of Global Changes 00:00:03.130 --> 00:00:14.410 position:88% Dr. Thomas Loveland:  Thank you for coming in tonight.   00:00:14.410 --> 00:00:17.150 position:56% I am from Sioux Falls, South Dakota, 00:00:17.150 --> 00:00:19.500 which is the home of the EROS 00:00:19.500 --> 00:00:23.810 position:56% Center.  We were placed there in the 00:00:23.810 --> 00:00:27.800 position:59% early 1970s in the anticipation of the 00:00:27.800 --> 00:00:30.830 position:58% series of Earth’s resource satellites 00:00:30.830 --> 00:00:34.430 that were conceived of as a way of 00:00:34.430 --> 00:01:09.580 position:58% revolutionizing the monitoring of the 00:01:09.580 --> 00:01:10.680 position:56% changing Earth. What I would like to 00:01:10.680 --> 00:01:12.160 position:58% do today is talk to about the 40-year 00:01:12.160 --> 00:01:13.150 history of the program called 00:01:13.150 --> 00:01:14.170 position:59% Landsat.  But before I get into any of 00:01:14.170 --> 00:01:16.410 position:56% the details about it, what I want to 00:01:16.410 --> 00:01:18.270 do is to provide a little bit of 00:01:18.270 --> 00:01:21.190 position:56% context about the idea of looking at 00:01:21.190 --> 00:01:24.150 position:56% the Earth from a distance and we can 00:01:24.150 --> 00:01:27.210 position:58% go back to the days of the Greeks and 00:01:27.210 --> 00:01:30.140 consider this quote by Socrates in 00:01:30.140 --> 00:01:32.170 which he provides us with the 00:01:32.170 --> 00:01:34.350 observation that when we rise above 00:01:34.350 --> 00:01:37.020 the Earth and look beyond, we will 00:01:37.020 --> 00:01:42.170 position:61% really understand the world we live in. 00:01:42.170 --> 00:01:44.520 position:59% And in fact, that’s the concept behind 00:01:44.520 --> 00:01:45.950 the field of study called remote 00:01:45.950 --> 00:01:48.330 sensing.  Remote sensing, in its 00:01:48.330 --> 00:01:49.590 simplest definition, is the 00:01:49.590 --> 00:01:51.580 position:56% acquisition of the information about 00:01:51.580 --> 00:01:53.960 an object without physical contact. 00:01:53.960 --> 00:01:56.680 So for example, we all use remote 00:01:56.680 --> 00:01:58.230 sensing. You’re looking at me and 00:01:58.230 --> 00:01:59.830 sizing me up and I’m doing the same 00:01:59.830 --> 00:02:01.530 with you, and that’s the process of 00:02:01.530 --> 00:02:07.000 position:58% collecting information without coming 00:02:07.000 --> 00:02:08.840 into direct contact. 00:02:08.840 --> 00:02:10.740 In that case of remote sensing, we 00:02:10.740 --> 00:02:16.460 position:59% rely upon the measurement of reflected 00:02:16.460 --> 00:02:18.090 or emitted electromagnetic 00:02:18.090 --> 00:02:20.440 energy.  Eyes for example see the 00:02:20.440 --> 00:02:23.430 visible portion of the spectrum but 00:02:23.430 --> 00:02:25.750 position:59% with instruments so we can look beyond 00:02:25.750 --> 00:02:28.030 what the eye can see and measure 00:02:28.030 --> 00:02:30.150 position:58% different wavelengths of reflected or 00:02:30.150 --> 00:02:33.990 position:59% emitted energy to make decisions about 00:02:33.990 --> 00:02:37.230 position:77% the characteristics of the features of the earth. 00:02:37.230 --> 00:02:40.360 position:59% Now, this extra visual electromagnetic 00:02:40.360 --> 00:02:42.600 position:56% information has some real advantages 00:02:42.600 --> 00:02:44.110 when trying to understand the 00:02:44.110 --> 00:02:46.090 position:59% characteristics of an area.  Here is a 00:02:46.090 --> 00:02:48.350 position:59% pair of images taken by Landsat at the 00:02:48.350 --> 00:02:53.500 position:59% Raleigh-Durham area in North Carolina. 00:02:53.500 --> 00:02:54.730 One is a false color image that 00:02:54.730 --> 00:02:56.940 position:58% combines the invisible light from the 00:02:56.940 --> 00:02:58.970 position:58% near-infrared portion of the spectrum 00:02:58.970 --> 00:03:00.570 position:58% with the red and green light that the 00:03:00.570 --> 00:03:03.660 position:58% eyes see, and the other is taken from 00:03:03.660 --> 00:03:05.630 position:59% a different portion of the spectrum to 00:03:05.630 --> 00:03:08.620 position:56% replicate the green and natural look 00:03:08.620 --> 00:03:10.460 position:69% of the landscape that we would normally see. 00:03:10.460 --> 00:03:12.430 Each image provides a little bit 00:03:12.430 --> 00:03:14.730 different information, and when we 00:03:14.730 --> 00:03:17.050 position:58% look at the contrast between them, we 00:03:17.050 --> 00:03:20.090 position:58% can start understanding the condition 00:03:20.090 --> 00:03:21.470 of features that we wouldn’t see by 00:03:21.470 --> 00:03:25.350 position:77% just looking at only one portion of the spectrum. 00:03:25.350 --> 00:03:28.410 position:59% When we are practicing remote sensing, 00:03:28.410 --> 00:03:30.710 we generally have a distant vantage 00:03:30.710 --> 00:03:33.450 point. Early remote sensing started 00:03:33.450 --> 00:03:36.710 position:58% with the use of balloons that evolved 00:03:36.710 --> 00:03:38.790 into airplanes and now much of our 00:03:38.790 --> 00:03:40.680 position:59% work is done from the vantage point of 00:03:40.680 --> 00:03:43.930 space.  And it’s the space-based 00:03:43.930 --> 00:03:46.590 position:59% perspective that I want to talk about. 00:03:46.590 --> 00:03:48.560 What I’d like to emphasize is that 00:03:48.560 --> 00:03:51.450 modern remote sensing started with 00:03:51.450 --> 00:03:52.510 something called ERTS, the Earth’s 00:03:52.510 --> 00:03:54.280 Resources Technology Satellite that 00:03:54.280 --> 00:03:58.060 position:59% was built by NASA starting in 1970 and 00:03:58.060 --> 00:04:05.860 launched on July 23rd, 1972. 00:04:05.860 --> 00:04:09.110 position:58% Now, before I say too much more about 00:04:09.110 --> 00:04:12.230 ERTS, which we now call Landsat, I 00:04:12.230 --> 00:04:13.920 position:58% just want to give a little bit of its 00:04:13.920 --> 00:04:17.520 position:58% history - the background for the idea 00:04:17.520 --> 00:04:19.070 of looking at the Earth from the 00:04:19.070 --> 00:04:20.830 position:58% vantage point of space, primarily for 00:04:20.830 --> 00:04:22.630 position:56% the purposes of better understanding 00:04:22.630 --> 00:04:24.790 position:58% how our planet is changing and how we 00:04:24.790 --> 00:04:27.090 can use that information to better 00:04:27.090 --> 00:04:29.160 manage natural resources.  00:04:29.160 --> 00:04:31.350 position:59% It was actually an idea that was first 00:04:31.350 --> 00:04:33.670 proposed by a man by the name of 00:04:33.670 --> 00:04:36.260 position:59% William T. Pecora, the Director of the 00:04:36.260 --> 00:04:38.190 U.S. Geological Survey in the 00:04:38.190 --> 00:04:42.210 position:56% 1960s.  Dr. Pecora, after looking at 00:04:42.210 --> 00:04:45.880 position:59% the growing used of space observations 00:04:45.880 --> 00:04:47.060 within the Defense and Intelligence 00:04:47.060 --> 00:04:48.610 position:58% World, realized that from the vantage 00:04:48.610 --> 00:04:49.720 position:58% point of space we can view and better 00:04:49.720 --> 00:04:50.980 position:58% understand our natural resources in a 00:04:50.980 --> 00:04:53.430 way that could revolutionize the 00:04:53.430 --> 00:04:55.340 effective use of our land. 00:04:55.340 --> 00:04:57.920 And so Dr. Pecora, along with then 00:04:57.920 --> 00:05:00.290 position:56% Secretary of Interior Stewart Udall, 00:05:00.290 --> 00:05:03.170 position:59% proposed something called Project EROS 00:05:03.170 --> 00:05:05.810 which was this concept of using new 00:05:05.810 --> 00:05:08.180 position:58% technologies, satellites, to view the 00:05:08.180 --> 00:05:10.560 Earth in order to understand its 00:05:10.560 --> 00:05:14.450 condition and how it’s changing. 00:05:14.450 --> 00:05:16.240 position:59% Ultimately, through our partnership of 00:05:16.240 --> 00:05:21.350 position:58% NASA, the USGS and NASA moved forward 00:05:21.350 --> 00:05:23.830 position:56% and created this program that is now 00:05:23.830 --> 00:05:27.340 called Landsat.   We’re approaching 00:05:27.340 --> 00:05:29.670 position:56% the 40th anniversary of this program 00:05:29.670 --> 00:05:32.870 position:58% that is credited with ushering in the 00:05:32.870 --> 00:05:36.100 position:56% modern remote sensing era in July of 00:05:36.100 --> 00:05:39.110 position:58% 1972.  Over its history, we have seen 00:05:39.110 --> 00:05:40.550 position:59% six successful launches of satellites. 00:05:40.550 --> 00:05:42.470 One satellite, Landsat 6, failed to 00:05:42.470 --> 00:05:44.630 have achieved orbit.  We currently 00:05:44.630 --> 00:05:47.110 have two satellites, Landsat 5 and 00:05:47.110 --> 00:05:49.350 Landsat 7, that are still in orbit, 00:05:49.350 --> 00:05:51.300 although I can’t say they’re fully 00:05:51.300 --> 00:05:54.690 functional; and we are about a year 00:05:54.690 --> 00:05:56.550 away from launching the next in the 00:05:56.550 --> 00:06:00.450 position:56% series – the Landsat Data Continuity 00:06:00.450 --> 00:06:03.250 position:59% Mission or Landsat 8, the name it will 00:06:03.250 --> 00:06:13.490 position:58% be given upon launch in January 2013. 00:06:13.490 --> 00:06:17.160 Now, over those six successful 00:06:17.160 --> 00:06:21.320 missions, we have created the most 00:06:21.320 --> 00:06:23.250 unique, comprehensive record of the 00:06:23.250 --> 00:06:26.340 condition of the Earth ever.  Each 00:06:26.340 --> 00:06:30.210 position:58% Landsat has imaged the Earth every 16 00:06:30.210 --> 00:06:31.830 position:58% to 18 days, providing image of almost 00:06:31.830 --> 00:06:34.500 every part of the Earth, The images 00:06:34.500 --> 00:06:44.570 position:58% provide a permanent record of the 40- 00:06:44.570 --> 00:06:45.860 year of the Earth. 00:06:45.860 --> 00:06:47.140 This is a permanent record and 00:06:47.140 --> 00:06:48.310 position:58% historic evidence of the condition of 00:06:48.310 --> 00:06:49.960 the Earth at given point some time 00:06:49.960 --> 00:06:53.050 since 1972.  In the history of the 00:06:53.050 --> 00:06:54.770 human race, no other record as 00:06:54.770 --> 00:07:00.530 position:64% complete as this has ever been assembled. 00:07:00.530 --> 00:07:02.520 So if we want to define or document 00:07:02.520 --> 00:07:03.760 position:59% the way things are changing and try to 00:07:03.760 --> 00:07:06.900 position:56% understand how it affects changes or 00:07:06.900 --> 00:07:09.270 position:56% rather changes of economies, we have 00:07:09.270 --> 00:07:12.070 the record to do that. 00:07:12.070 --> 00:07:16.340 position:56%  Landsat uses instruments with names 00:07:16.340 --> 00:07:19.940 like MSS, TM and ETM+, and here are 00:07:19.940 --> 00:07:24.040 some of the images collected from 00:07:24.040 --> 00:07:40.070 position:56% instruments. Landsat’s purpose is to 00:07:40.070 --> 00:07:42.670 provide an inventory of the global 00:07:42.670 --> 00:07:44.360 land surface that can be used to 00:07:44.360 --> 00:07:46.260 measure changes and attribute those 00:07:46.260 --> 00:07:48.270 changes to either natural causes or 00:07:48.270 --> 00:07:51.190 human activity.   Landsat is not 00:07:51.190 --> 00:07:57.030 position:56% designed not to look at the small details in the landscape but to look 00:07:57.030 --> 00:07:59.650 position:58% at the patterns of the utilization of 00:07:59.650 --> 00:08:02.420 position:59% our natural resources at a scale where 00:08:02.420 --> 00:08:03.870 position:58% we can understand human activity from 00:08:03.870 --> 00:08:05.620 natural processes. 00:08:05.620 --> 00:08:07.510 position:58% And we need to do that seasonally and 00:08:07.510 --> 00:08:10.740 annually and we need to do that 00:08:10.740 --> 00:08:14.250 position:59% continuously.  And so in July, we will 00:08:14.250 --> 00:08:16.950 cross the 40-year threshold, the 00:08:16.950 --> 00:08:19.540 40th anniversary of this remarkable 00:08:19.540 --> 00:08:21.490 series of missions. 00:08:21.490 --> 00:08:25.720 position:56% Now, as I said, Landsat doesn’t look 00:08:25.720 --> 00:08:27.330 position:56% at the ultimate detail.  Our current 00:08:27.330 --> 00:08:29.350 position:56% satellites have the resolution of 30 00:08:29.350 --> 00:08:31.920 meters.  For those of you with an 00:08:31.920 --> 00:08:33.680 position:58% agricultural background, that’s about 00:08:33.680 --> 00:08:37.440 position:58% a quarter of an acre.  So it would be 00:08:37.440 --> 00:08:40.320 position:59% too small to look at what you’re doing 00:08:40.320 --> 00:08:42.340 position:58% in your backyard, or too small to spy 00:08:42.340 --> 00:08:44.600 position:58% on your neighbor or even to determine 00:08:44.600 --> 00:08:47.590 whether you have a new car. But 30 00:08:47.590 --> 00:08:49.320 meters is ideal to look at the 00:08:49.320 --> 00:08:50.640 position:59% condition of our agricultural lands or 00:08:50.640 --> 00:08:52.420 forests, the growth of cities and 00:08:52.420 --> 00:08:57.220 other similar types of things. 00:08:57.220 --> 00:08:59.850 position:58% On the left side of the slide, you’ll 00:08:59.850 --> 00:09:02.480 see an image from a NASA satellite 00:09:02.480 --> 00:09:04.070 position:58% named MODIS, MODIS is an example of a 00:09:04.070 --> 00:09:05.430 position:58% different type of imaging system that 00:09:05.430 --> 00:09:07.410 looks at the Earth on a daily basis 00:09:07.410 --> 00:09:09.440 position:56% with 1000 meter resolution - but not 00:09:09.440 --> 00:09:11.400 position:67% at that 30-meter resolution Landsat’s used. 00:09:11.400 --> 00:09:13.030 position:59% But as you see when we compare the two 00:09:13.030 --> 00:09:14.610 position:59% areas, there’s so much different level 00:09:14.610 --> 00:09:17.530 position:59% of detail you have.  One has a purpose 00:09:17.530 --> 00:09:19.820 of viewing vegetation condition 00:09:19.820 --> 00:09:20.060 everyday, MODIS and its 1000 meter 00:09:20.060 --> 00:09:21.670 position:58% resolution is excellent, but when you 00:09:21.670 --> 00:09:23.500 need to view fields at the scale we 00:09:23.500 --> 00:09:25.210 manage, Landsat’s 30 measure 00:09:25.210 --> 00:09:27.130 resolution is best.   00:09:27.130 --> 00:09:28.570 There are many different types of 00:09:28.570 --> 00:09:30.830 position:56% Earth observation satellite missions 00:09:30.830 --> 00:09:33.630 position:56% collecting images.  Some have a very 00:09:33.630 --> 00:09:35.900 position:58% fine resolution and measure things as 00:09:35.900 --> 00:09:37.150 small as a meter, just a few 00:09:37.150 --> 00:09:39.240 feet.  And others like our Landsat 00:09:39.240 --> 00:09:41.200 images at 30 meters. They all serve 00:09:41.200 --> 00:09:43.310 specific purposes.  They’re very 00:09:43.310 --> 00:09:57.750 complimentary to each other. 00:09:57.750 --> 00:10:00.400 position:58% All of these are parts of the arsenal 00:10:00.400 --> 00:10:02.110 of tools that remote sensing 00:10:02.110 --> 00:10:04.030 position:59% specialists use when they’re trying to 00:10:04.030 --> 00:10:09.170 position:75% understand functioning and health of our planet. 00:10:09.170 --> 00:10:11.480 Every Landsat image is about 185 00:10:11.480 --> 00:10:13.620 position:59% kilometers on a side - that translates 00:10:13.620 --> 00:10:18.550 position:58% to about 110 miles.  So we’re looking 00:10:18.550 --> 00:10:20.670 position:56% at regional arrangements of the land 00:10:20.670 --> 00:10:28.900 and how natural resources are used. 00:10:28.900 --> 00:10:30.230 We can see the proximities of our 00:10:30.230 --> 00:10:32.230 position:56% farms to our urban centers and which 00:10:32.230 --> 00:10:34.710 position:59% permits us to understand environmental 00:10:34.710 --> 00:10:36.570 connections and relationships. 00:10:36.570 --> 00:10:39.030 position:56% Our satellites orbit the earth every 00:10:39.030 --> 00:10:42.210 16 days and so we’re getting this 00:10:42.210 --> 00:10:45.640 regional look every 16 days, 00:10:45.640 --> 00:10:47.400 position:59% potentially around the world, and it’s 00:10:47.400 --> 00:10:49.300 been going on for many, many years. 00:10:49.300 --> 00:10:53.430 Over the 40 years of Landsat, the 00:10:53.430 --> 00:10:55.780 position:56% series of satellites have documented 00:10:55.780 --> 00:10:57.700 position:58% most of the major contemporary events 00:10:57.700 --> 00:11:00.230 that we have lived through or 00:11:00.230 --> 00:11:03.700 position:56% witnessed.  And I want to show a few 00:11:03.700 --> 00:11:06.200 examples of that.  00:11:06.200 --> 00:11:10.700 For example, many in this room 00:11:10.700 --> 00:11:13.640 probably remember the day Mount St. 00:11:13.640 --> 00:11:16.100 Helen’s erupted, which was in 00:11:16.100 --> 00:11:18.870 position:58% 1980.  Here’s a series of four images 00:11:18.870 --> 00:11:22.100 position:56% that were taken before and after the 00:11:22.100 --> 00:11:24.240 Mount St. Helen’s eruption.   00:11:24.240 --> 00:11:32.660 In this particular slide, a false 00:11:32.660 --> 00:11:35.880 position:56% color image and so the red indicates 00:11:35.880 --> 00:11:37.840 the healthy green vegetation and 00:11:37.840 --> 00:11:40.400 that’s one of the old tradition 00:11:40.400 --> 00:11:42.090 approaches in remote sensing for 00:11:42.090 --> 00:11:46.260 position:59% understanding vegetation vigor.   1973 00:11:46.260 --> 00:11:49.610 was pre-eruption, in 1980 it 00:11:49.610 --> 00:11:52.500 erupted.  Here in the 1983 image is 00:11:52.500 --> 00:11:56.440 position:94% what it looked like after the mountain blew up to the north. 00:11:56.440 --> 00:11:58.600 position:59% The grays and the browns indicate bare 00:11:58.600 --> 00:12:01.780 position:59% ground and vegetation destroyed by the 00:12:01.780 --> 00:12:03.290 position:58% eruption; and if you look at the 1988 00:12:03.290 --> 00:12:04.820 position:59% and 1992 images, you see the return of 00:12:04.820 --> 00:12:06.600 the pinkish colors, colors that 00:12:06.600 --> 00:12:07.880 indicate that the living healthy 00:12:07.880 --> 00:12:09.530 vegetation is regenerating in the 00:12:09.530 --> 00:12:12.420 position:59% ecosystem.  This sequence shows us not 00:12:12.420 --> 00:12:15.080 position:58% only the destruction of a volcano but 00:12:15.080 --> 00:12:19.160 position:70% the natural process of recovery that follows. 00:12:19.160 --> 00:12:20.970 position:59% We can monitor snow cover and glaciers 00:12:20.970 --> 00:12:22.590 around the world.  Here is an 00:12:22.590 --> 00:12:24.530 position:56% interesting pair of images that show 00:12:24.530 --> 00:12:27.560 position:56% the gradual elimination of the snows 00:12:27.560 --> 00:12:30.540 of Kilimanjaro made prominent by 00:12:30.540 --> 00:12:33.380 Ernest Hemingway's book. Because of 00:12:33.380 --> 00:12:37.210 position:59% this continuing monitoring by Landsat, 00:12:37.210 --> 00:12:38.960 we can start understanding not only 00:12:38.960 --> 00:12:41.330 that we’re losing the snowcap of 00:12:41.330 --> 00:12:42.790 position:56% Kilimanjaro, and others but are able 00:12:42.790 --> 00:12:44.090 position:58% to understand how the land around the 00:12:44.090 --> 00:12:46.870 position:58% mountain is changing and is affected. 00:12:46.870 --> 00:12:48.000 position:56% This helps us to understand what the 00:12:48.000 --> 00:12:49.250 position:56% connections are to the environmental 00:12:49.250 --> 00:12:51.350 changes that are occurring. 00:12:51.350 --> 00:12:55.270 position:59% We can monitor the changing footprints 00:12:55.270 --> 00:12:57.170 position:59% of our urban areas such as Dallas-Fort 00:12:57.170 --> 00:13:00.120 position:58% Worth. Here are images of Dallas-Fort 00:13:00.120 --> 00:13:01.290 position:56% Worth from the 70s to the 80s to the 00:13:01.290 --> 00:13:03.160 position:58% 2000s in which the population doubled 00:13:03.160 --> 00:13:05.220 position:58% and the footprint of the city doubled 00:13:05.220 --> 00:13:08.170 as well.  What were once two 00:13:08.170 --> 00:13:10.740 position:59% relatively distinct cities, Dallas and 00:13:10.740 --> 00:13:15.540 position:69% Fort Worth, are now one big large metroplex. 00:13:15.540 --> 00:13:18.050 position:56% We’ve all heard about the changes in 00:13:18.050 --> 00:13:21.480 position:59% tropical forests and in particular the 00:13:21.480 --> 00:13:23.990 loss of forest in the Amazon in 00:13:23.990 --> 00:13:27.100 Brazil.  Here is an example of the 00:13:27.100 --> 00:13:28.440 types of processes that have been 00:13:28.440 --> 00:13:31.430 witnessed by Landsat. On the left 00:13:31.430 --> 00:13:34.100 position:56% side is the 1984 image of an area in 00:13:34.100 --> 00:13:36.840 the Brazilian rainforest. There’s a 00:13:36.840 --> 00:13:39.090 position:58% little bit of logging going on at the 00:13:39.090 --> 00:13:41.460 far side of the image, but then in 00:13:41.460 --> 00:13:45.220 position:56% 2011, a few years after a very large 00:13:45.220 --> 00:13:48.500 position:59% dam was completed, we see not only the 00:13:48.500 --> 00:13:51.270 new reservoir that was created, but 00:13:51.270 --> 00:13:53.980 position:59% also the many white areas that are the 00:13:53.980 --> 00:13:55.670 loss of the forest, of tropical 00:13:55.670 --> 00:13:57.540 position:59% forest, that came about because of the 00:13:57.540 --> 00:14:01.060 position:59% settlement practices that are changing 00:14:01.060 --> 00:14:06.240 much of the rural areas of Brazil. 00:14:06.240 --> 00:14:08.770 And here’s a series of Northeastern 00:14:08.770 --> 00:14:15.000 South Dakota images from 1984, ’91, 00:14:15.000 --> 00:14:18.820 position:59% 2001 and so on until 2011.  This is an 00:14:18.820 --> 00:14:22.490 position:58% area that’s about 25 miles across and 00:14:22.490 --> 00:14:27.810 up that has been experiencing above 00:14:27.810 --> 00:14:29.810 average moisture for over 20 00:14:29.810 --> 00:14:37.080 position:88% years.  We have more water than we know what to do with. 00:14:37.080 --> 00:14:41.210 This is an old glacial lakes region 00:14:41.210 --> 00:14:44.210 position:59% and in 1984 about 15% of this area was 00:14:44.210 --> 00:14:46.980 position:59% covered with surface water.  We’re now 00:14:46.980 --> 00:14:49.720 position:59% seeing about 40-45% water cover now in 00:14:49.720 --> 00:14:52.810 position:56% 2011 and if you look closely at this 00:14:52.810 --> 00:14:55.570 area you’ll see roads flooded, new 00:14:55.570 --> 00:14:56.920 lakes formed and a total 00:14:56.920 --> 00:14:59.880 position:59% transformation of the landscape as the 00:14:59.880 --> 00:15:02.490 water bodies fill up. 00:15:02.490 --> 00:15:03.830 Downstream where I live in Sioux 00:15:03.830 --> 00:15:06.340 position:58% Falls, which is about 150 miles away, 00:15:06.340 --> 00:15:09.090 what we’re seeing streamflow rates 00:15:09.090 --> 00:15:13.290 position:58% that are greater than normal and it’s 00:15:13.290 --> 00:15:15.540 position:59% simply because the ground is saturated 00:15:15.540 --> 00:15:18.130 position:56% and so runoff rates from any type of 00:15:18.130 --> 00:15:21.740 precipitation event are increasing. 00:15:21.740 --> 00:15:24.990 There are many ways to look at the 00:15:24.990 --> 00:15:27.030 value of Landsat.  Here’s just a 00:15:27.030 --> 00:15:30.310 position:58% couple of quotes that I think help us 00:15:30.310 --> 00:15:32.820 understand why the continuous 00:15:32.820 --> 00:15:34.550 observation of space makes some 00:15:34.550 --> 00:15:39.240 sense.  In the first quote by a 00:15:39.240 --> 00:15:42.260 Russian responsible for a program 00:15:42.260 --> 00:15:44.090 called the Transparent World 00:15:44.090 --> 00:15:48.420 position:58% Partnership, he concluded that by the 00:15:48.420 --> 00:15:49.880 position:56% continuous imaging of the Earth from 00:15:49.880 --> 00:15:53.110 position:59% space democratizes the events that are 00:15:53.110 --> 00:15:57.910 position:58% going on in the surface of the planet 00:15:57.910 --> 00:16:00.050 and providing that in concealable 00:16:00.050 --> 00:16:02.900 position:58% historic evidence that will allow all 00:16:02.900 --> 00:16:05.650 position:72% people to understand what has really happened. 00:16:05.650 --> 00:16:07.380 The evidence doesn’t go away.  It’s 00:16:07.380 --> 00:16:10.360 position:80% permanent, stored for perpetuity within the images. 00:16:10.360 --> 00:16:12.230 position:56% Another way of looking at it is from 00:16:12.230 --> 00:16:14.920 my colleague Curtis Woodcock from 00:16:14.920 --> 00:16:16.660 Boston University, in which he 00:16:16.660 --> 00:16:19.520 position:56% compares Landsat to the Earth’s free 00:16:19.520 --> 00:16:22.090 press and says that because of the 00:16:22.090 --> 00:16:24.490 global perspective that we’ve had 00:16:24.490 --> 00:16:27.460 since 1972, we have objective and 00:16:27.460 --> 00:16:29.810 position:59% undisputable evidence of the condition 00:16:29.810 --> 00:16:32.300 position:58% of this planet.  It’s another example 00:16:32.300 --> 00:16:35.060 position:88% of the value of imaging the Earth on a continuous basis. 00:16:35.060 --> 00:16:37.750 position:59% Here’s an example of one of the events 00:16:37.750 --> 00:16:39.560 position:56% that was witnessed by Landsat.  Most 00:16:39.560 --> 00:16:41.970 of us probably have heard about the 00:16:41.970 --> 00:16:44.500 Chernobyl Nuclear disaster that 00:16:44.500 --> 00:16:53.030 occurred in 1986. 00:16:53.030 --> 00:16:55.590 The first image in 1975, that’s the 00:16:55.590 --> 00:16:57.070 area where the construction of the 00:16:57.070 --> 00:17:00.180 position:70% nuclear power plant was just being developed. 00:17:00.180 --> 00:17:01.930 If you look at the center image, 00:17:01.930 --> 00:17:03.320 position:56% you’ll see the big blue blob, that’s 00:17:03.320 --> 00:17:05.400 position:56% the nuclear power plant, the cooling 00:17:05.400 --> 00:17:07.700 position:59% pond for it and the reactor was to the 00:17:07.700 --> 00:17:11.560 upper left hand side of that. 00:17:11.560 --> 00:17:13.240 Around it you see the dark greens 00:17:13.240 --> 00:17:15.780 position:56% those are the patterns of the forest 00:17:15.780 --> 00:17:19.430 and the lighter greens and white 00:17:19.430 --> 00:17:21.460 position:75% rectangular patterns are the agriculture fields. 00:17:21.460 --> 00:17:25.060 position:56% After the disaster, the contaminated 00:17:25.060 --> 00:17:27.090 area was abandoned. Now, through 00:17:27.090 --> 00:17:28.420 position:59% continuous monitoring of the region by 00:17:28.420 --> 00:17:29.770 Landsat, we’ve been able to look at 00:17:29.770 --> 00:17:31.180 position:56% how the land is recovering and being 00:17:31.180 --> 00:17:32.920 used.  And essentially, what we’re 00:17:32.920 --> 00:17:36.210 position:58% seeing is that the agricultural lands 00:17:36.210 --> 00:17:38.680 position:58% are now in grasslands and have indeed 00:17:38.680 --> 00:17:40.080 returned to productive agricultural 00:17:40.080 --> 00:17:41.860 use because of the long-term 00:17:41.860 --> 00:17:45.990 position:67% contamination resulting from the explosion. 00:17:45.990 --> 00:17:48.810 Landsat was designed for monitoring 00:17:48.810 --> 00:17:50.650 position:58% purposes and it certainly contributes 00:17:50.650 --> 00:17:54.950 position:59% to our collection of tools we use when 00:17:54.950 --> 00:17:56.530 we’re trying to understand tactical 00:17:56.530 --> 00:17:58.970 position:56% and strategic issues associated with 00:17:58.970 --> 00:18:01.210 national security events. 00:18:01.210 --> 00:18:02.290 Here is an example of the series of 00:18:02.290 --> 00:18:03.890 images collected during Operation 00:18:03.890 --> 00:18:07.560 Desert Storm in which in this 00:18:07.560 --> 00:18:10.490 particular case in Kuwait, at the 00:18:10.490 --> 00:18:13.450 position:59% center image, shows the dark clouds of 00:18:13.450 --> 00:18:16.550 position:56% smoke coming from the oil wells that 00:18:16.550 --> 00:18:20.520 were set afire by the Iraqis. 00:18:20.520 --> 00:18:22.330 And if you look at the November 00:18:22.330 --> 00:18:25.210 position:56% 14th  ‘91 image, you’ll see that the 00:18:25.210 --> 00:18:27.540 position:59% efforts to reduce and to eliminate the 00:18:27.540 --> 00:18:31.290 position:91% fires are having some success and the smoke is going down. 00:18:31.290 --> 00:18:33.770 Afterward, these images helped 00:18:33.770 --> 00:18:35.330 evaluate the impact of this very 00:18:35.330 --> 00:18:38.040 significant environmental 00:18:38.040 --> 00:18:41.890 disaster.  These are maps of broad 00:18:41.890 --> 00:18:43.910 regions and by looking at things 00:18:43.910 --> 00:18:46.020 position:58% regionally, we can look at pattern or 00:18:46.020 --> 00:18:49.370 changes that we wouldn’t see if we 00:18:49.370 --> 00:18:51.010 position:56% were looking at very localized areas 00:18:51.010 --> 00:18:53.560 position:58% and from that we can gain information 00:18:53.560 --> 00:18:55.460 we may need to start understanding 00:18:55.460 --> 00:19:01.350 position:66% what the movements of military troops are. 00:19:01.350 --> 00:19:03.460 Another example we all remember is 00:19:03.460 --> 00:19:05.960 position:56% this Landsat image from 2010 showing 00:19:05.960 --> 00:19:10.710 position:59% the Gulf Oil Spill. Landsat was one of 00:19:10.710 --> 00:19:14.400 position:56% many imaging systems enlisted to try 00:19:14.400 --> 00:19:17.030 position:59% to provide the intelligence we need to 00:19:17.030 --> 00:19:21.910 actively deal with this disaster. 00:19:21.910 --> 00:19:25.920 position:56% So what drives the need for Landsat? 00:19:25.920 --> 00:19:27.760 position:56% It’s used for science; it’s used for 00:19:27.760 --> 00:19:29.970 operational activities; natural 00:19:29.970 --> 00:19:31.320 resource management; and it’s 00:19:31.320 --> 00:19:32.770 position:58% available to the public to understand 00:19:32.770 --> 00:19:34.770 their environment and the lands 00:19:34.770 --> 00:19:37.330 position:56% surround them.  No matter what other 00:19:37.330 --> 00:19:40.200 position:70% purpose, we all have a need for these images. 00:19:40.200 --> 00:19:41.590 We need a global perspective.  Our 00:19:41.590 --> 00:19:43.090 position:58% problems don’t end in our borders and 00:19:43.090 --> 00:19:45.400 position:58% we were affected by activities around 00:19:45.400 --> 00:19:47.570 position:59% the world.  We need to look around the 00:19:47.570 --> 00:19:50.660 world using our long record of 00:19:50.660 --> 00:19:52.880 position:56% observation so we can understand how 00:19:52.880 --> 00:19:55.380 position:58% Earth conditions today had origins in 00:19:55.380 --> 00:19:58.430 decisions made 30 to 40 years ago. 00:19:58.430 --> 00:20:00.310 And we need to have data in a 00:20:00.310 --> 00:20:02.590 position:56% calibrated and accurate form so that 00:20:02.590 --> 00:20:04.930 we can compare images to another to 00:20:04.930 --> 00:20:07.870 detect changes.  The images tell us 00:20:07.870 --> 00:20:09.640 something definitive about the 00:20:09.640 --> 00:20:11.300 condition of the land, the state of 00:20:11.300 --> 00:20:13.510 the vegetation, the quality of the 00:20:13.510 --> 00:20:16.630 position:73% water or whatever other factor we’re measuring. 00:20:16.630 --> 00:20:18.960 position:58% It helps us look at remote areas that 00:20:18.960 --> 00:20:20.450 are difficult to study using 00:20:20.450 --> 00:20:26.590 position:58% conventional ways.  This image mosaic 00:20:26.590 --> 00:20:27.920 position:58% is a part of a very innovative effort 00:20:27.920 --> 00:20:29.220 by NASA, the USGS, and the National 00:20:29.220 --> 00:20:30.280 Science Foundation in which we used 00:20:30.280 --> 00:20:31.940 position:56% Landsat and other types of images to 00:20:31.940 --> 00:20:35.810 position:59% mosaic together the first image-map of 00:20:35.810 --> 00:20:38.800 position:58% the Antarctic continent.  And in this 00:20:38.800 --> 00:20:40.560 position:56% particular case, it provides us with 00:20:40.560 --> 00:20:46.660 position:58% the look that we cannot see unless we 00:20:46.660 --> 00:20:48.180 position:75% are standing on the ground in a particular area. 00:20:48.180 --> 00:20:50.370 position:59% We’re seeing the Antarctic region as a 00:20:50.370 --> 00:20:52.320 whole and in fact, we can go beyond 00:20:52.320 --> 00:20:55.110 position:58% what looks like a bunch of white snow 00:20:55.110 --> 00:20:57.700 and ice and display it in a 3- 00:20:57.700 --> 00:20:59.830 dimentional form and start really 00:20:59.830 --> 00:21:01.510 understanding the conditions of 00:21:01.510 --> 00:21:04.930 Antarctica. We can understand the 00:21:04.930 --> 00:21:07.880 changes in ice flows and depths and 00:21:07.880 --> 00:21:10.000 other factors that are important in 00:21:10.000 --> 00:21:12.370 understanding how Antarctica is 00:21:12.370 --> 00:21:15.520 responding to our changing world.  00:21:15.520 --> 00:21:17.350 position:58% Landsat is becomingly an increasingly 00:21:17.350 --> 00:21:19.630 position:56% important tool in understanding some 00:21:19.630 --> 00:21:21.990 position:58% of the factors that are pointed to as 00:21:21.990 --> 00:21:26.080 position:58% causes of global climate change.  And 00:21:26.080 --> 00:21:27.250 of course one of the things we’ve 00:21:27.250 --> 00:21:28.450 heard much about over the years is 00:21:28.450 --> 00:21:31.030 deforestation, particularly in 00:21:31.030 --> 00:21:33.110 tropical regions, and the resulting 00:21:33.110 --> 00:21:34.980 position:58% increases of carbon in the atmosphere 00:21:34.980 --> 00:21:36.530 position:56% that research is showing contributes 00:21:36.530 --> 00:21:38.000 position:56% to warming temperatures.  And so the 00:21:38.000 --> 00:21:39.200 use of Landsat to really understand 00:21:39.200 --> 00:21:41.510 position:56% the extent of that trade is a pretty 00:21:41.510 --> 00:21:43.950 position:66% important for understanding global change. 00:21:43.950 --> 00:21:45.630 Here’s an example put together by a 00:21:45.630 --> 00:21:47.360 colleague, Matt Hansen, of the 00:21:47.360 --> 00:21:49.960 position:58% University of Maryland, formerly from 00:21:49.960 --> 00:21:55.360 position:59% South Dakota State University. The red 00:21:55.360 --> 00:22:00.880 position:84% areas in the map show various levels of forest change. 00:22:00.880 --> 00:22:03.010 This study used Landsat as well as 00:22:03.010 --> 00:22:05.500 other satellite systems, to very 00:22:05.500 --> 00:22:07.580 accurately estimate the precise 00:22:07.580 --> 00:22:14.870 position:63% amounts of change between 2000 and 2005. 00:22:14.870 --> 00:22:17.270 The interesting thing about this is 00:22:17.270 --> 00:22:20.160 position:56% that when you look at the continents 00:22:20.160 --> 00:22:23.380 position:56% with forest change, North America is 00:22:23.380 --> 00:22:28.330 as high as any continent. 00:22:28.330 --> 00:22:32.530 And in fact, if you look at the 00:22:32.530 --> 00:22:34.690 position:56% countries with major loss and change 00:22:34.690 --> 00:22:35.920 U.S. is showing up pretty 00:22:35.920 --> 00:22:38.980 prominently.  That is something 00:22:38.980 --> 00:22:41.060 significant to think about. 00:22:41.060 --> 00:22:43.060 position:58% We can look in more detail though and 00:22:43.060 --> 00:22:46.340 position:58% we use this 40-year Landsat record to 00:22:46.340 --> 00:22:47.710 understand land change across the 00:22:47.710 --> 00:22:48.930 United States.  This is a very 00:22:48.930 --> 00:22:50.280 generalized map that shows you the 00:22:50.280 --> 00:22:52.950 general rates of change for the 00:22:52.950 --> 00:22:56.050 different ecological regions of the 00:22:56.050 --> 00:22:57.940 country. You will see that the red 00:22:57.940 --> 00:23:00.470 position:56% colored areas have the highest rates 00:23:00.470 --> 00:23:02.660 position:59% of land change, and if you think about 00:23:02.660 --> 00:23:03.980 position:56% the geography of the country, you’ll 00:23:03.980 --> 00:23:05.380 position:59% understand that the forested areas are 00:23:05.380 --> 00:23:08.240 position:63% changing the most in the United States.  00:23:08.240 --> 00:23:12.350 position:56% And not because we’ve clearing a lot 00:23:12.350 --> 00:23:14.610 of trees for cities or agricultural 00:23:14.610 --> 00:23:17.080 purposes, but we have an active 00:23:17.080 --> 00:23:21.930 commercial forestry sector that is 00:23:21.930 --> 00:23:24.450 position:58% planting and harvesting trees, and in 00:23:24.450 --> 00:23:25.620 some parts of the country able to 00:23:25.620 --> 00:23:28.640 position:58% harvest in 20-25-year cycles.  So our 00:23:28.640 --> 00:23:34.000 position:73% landscape changes rapidly but it’s very cyclic. 00:23:34.000 --> 00:23:35.640 Trees will be cropped one day and 00:23:35.640 --> 00:23:37.470 position:58% replanted the next year.  But when we 00:23:37.470 --> 00:23:39.200 position:59% look at it over a period of time, from 00:23:39.200 --> 00:23:40.900 the vantage point of Landsat, we’re 00:23:40.900 --> 00:23:43.200 position:56% able to really measure the fact that 00:23:43.200 --> 00:23:45.720 position:58% over the last thirty years, we’ve had 00:23:45.720 --> 00:23:47.720 position:56% about a percentage or so loss of the 00:23:47.720 --> 00:23:51.650 position:88% nation’s tree cover.  So we are losing trees in the U.S. 00:23:51.650 --> 00:23:57.060 Now, many federal agencies make 00:23:57.060 --> 00:23:59.920 position:58% constant use of Landsat to understand 00:23:59.920 --> 00:24:02.440 the characteristics of our nation’s 00:24:02.440 --> 00:24:05.200 position:88% resources and to address resource management challenges. 00:24:05.200 --> 00:24:06.600 The U.S. Geological Survey for 00:24:06.600 --> 00:24:08.950 example, every five years puts up 00:24:08.950 --> 00:24:11.000 position:58% together this map called the National 00:24:11.000 --> 00:24:13.520 position:56% Land Cover Database which provides a 00:24:13.520 --> 00:24:16.370 map of the extent of croplands, 00:24:16.370 --> 00:24:18.280 forests, urban areas and many other 00:24:18.280 --> 00:24:22.100 position:56% land uses and covers across the U.S. 00:24:22.100 --> 00:24:23.910 position:56% It provides information on how those 00:24:23.910 --> 00:24:26.050 resources are changing, what the 00:24:26.050 --> 00:24:27.910 position:58% percent tree cover is and how much of 00:24:27.910 --> 00:24:31.170 position:59% that surface is impermeable - how much 00:24:31.170 --> 00:24:33.080 of it has been paved over, a very 00:24:33.080 --> 00:24:34.950 position:58% important factor when we’re trying to 00:24:34.950 --> 00:24:37.780 understand hydrological processes. 00:24:37.780 --> 00:24:40.950 position:56% This is the 2010 Cropland Layer that 00:24:40.950 --> 00:24:42.180 was just released by the National 00:24:42.180 --> 00:24:44.070 position:59% Statistics Service.  The US Department 00:24:44.070 --> 00:24:50.850 of Agriculture through the National 00:24:50.850 --> 00:24:52.230 position:56% Agricultural Statistics Service uses 00:24:52.230 --> 00:24:53.490 position:58% Landsat on an annual basis to map all 00:24:53.490 --> 00:24:54.850 position:59% of the Nation’s croplands every season 00:24:54.850 --> 00:24:56.280 for use in determining crop acreage 00:24:56.280 --> 00:24:57.590 position:56% across the country, which ultimately 00:24:57.590 --> 00:24:59.220 position:58% helps us understand yield potentials, 00:24:59.220 --> 00:25:00.920 market values and many other very 00:25:00.920 --> 00:25:13.010 important economic variables. 00:25:13.010 --> 00:25:14.200 position:59% This is map of natural vegetation made 00:25:14.200 --> 00:25:16.180 by the USGS and Forest Service that 00:25:16.180 --> 00:25:18.070 position:58% relates to fuel types that correspond 00:25:18.070 --> 00:25:20.420 to the ignition potential, the burn 00:25:20.420 --> 00:25:22.160 position:56% rates, and the amount of energy that 00:25:22.160 --> 00:25:26.470 position:84% could be released of lands that would be set on fire.  00:25:26.470 --> 00:25:28.470 position:58% This is really a critical tool to the 00:25:28.470 --> 00:25:30.870 position:58% nation’s efforts to manage wild fires 00:25:30.870 --> 00:25:33.650 position:58% and to try to reduce the economic and 00:25:33.650 --> 00:25:36.340 position:58% human loss that’s associated with the 00:25:36.340 --> 00:25:39.330 position:58% fires particularly those currently in 00:25:39.330 --> 00:25:41.120 the wild land and the urban 00:25:41.120 --> 00:25:44.840 interfaces.  Fires specialists make 00:25:44.840 --> 00:25:45.990 position:56% major use of Landsat and every major 00:25:45.990 --> 00:25:47.720 fire that occurs in this country is 00:25:47.720 --> 00:25:49.730 immediately mapped with Landsat and 00:25:49.730 --> 00:25:52.180 position:58% then monitored for years to follow as 00:25:52.180 --> 00:25:55.400 position:56% we try to understand recovery rates, 00:25:55.400 --> 00:25:57.490 position:59% we try to measure the effectiveness of 00:25:57.490 --> 00:25:59.850 position:56% the mediation that resource managers 00:25:59.850 --> 00:26:02.130 position:56% are using to reduce the erosion from 00:26:02.130 --> 00:26:05.680 the burnt area and other factors. 00:26:05.680 --> 00:26:08.530 position:58%  And so Landsat on a daily basis gets 00:26:08.530 --> 00:26:11.120 put to use to try to improve and 00:26:11.120 --> 00:26:19.550 position:66% return burned lands to healthy conditions. 00:26:19.550 --> 00:26:20.980 position:58% Now another example, that I think one 00:26:20.980 --> 00:26:22.640 that illustrates the incredible 00:26:22.640 --> 00:26:29.620 position:58% practical use of Landsat. It involves 00:26:29.620 --> 00:26:31.600 managing water in the western US. 00:26:31.600 --> 00:26:34.450 position:83% There’s not enough water to meet the growing demands. 00:26:34.450 --> 00:26:37.360 position:59% The competition between urban uses and 00:26:37.360 --> 00:26:39.280 position:58% agricultural uses are increasingly in 00:26:39.280 --> 00:26:42.080 position:59% conflict.  And so understanding how to 00:26:42.080 --> 00:26:44.680 position:59% best manage those water resources is a 00:26:44.680 --> 00:26:48.020 position:58% critical factor.  Landsat has become, 00:26:48.020 --> 00:26:51.050 position:59% in recent years, the tool of choice to 00:26:51.050 --> 00:26:53.600 position:56% really help understand where and how 00:26:53.600 --> 00:26:58.250 position:56% water is used and to help understand 00:26:58.250 --> 00:26:59.720 position:56% the effective from inefficient water 00:26:59.720 --> 00:27:04.730 position:84% uses and to adjudicate any disputes that are going on. 00:27:04.730 --> 00:27:06.530 And so, through the analysis of 00:27:06.530 --> 00:27:10.160 position:59% thermal infrared imagery, emitted heat 00:27:10.160 --> 00:27:12.440 measurements that Landsat collects, 00:27:12.440 --> 00:27:14.110 position:56% evapotranspiration is calculated and 00:27:14.110 --> 00:27:18.700 position:58% ultimately translated that into terms 00:27:18.700 --> 00:27:20.350 relating to water use. 00:27:20.350 --> 00:27:25.560 position:80% Close enough, Rick? Rick leads this study in Idaho. 00:27:25.560 --> 00:27:27.200 Rick:  Yeah. 00:27:27.200 --> 00:27:28.590 Dr. Thomas Loveland:  Thanks. 00:27:28.590 --> 00:27:29.410 position:58% And we think that’s pretty neat stuff 00:27:29.410 --> 00:27:30.520 and so do others.   Rick and his 00:27:30.520 --> 00:27:33.220 colleagues developed this, Rick is 00:27:33.220 --> 00:27:35.480 position:56% with the University of Idaho and has 00:27:35.480 --> 00:27:37.200 position:56% helped the Idaho Department of Water 00:27:37.200 --> 00:27:39.640 position:58% Resources put Landsat to good use for 00:27:39.640 --> 00:27:42.200 water management. They won an award 00:27:42.200 --> 00:27:43.920 from the Harvard University’s Ash 00:27:43.920 --> 00:27:46.330 Institute’s Innovations in American 00:27:46.330 --> 00:27:48.170 Government Award for finding an 00:27:48.170 --> 00:27:51.020 position:59% innovative technological solution that 00:27:51.020 --> 00:27:53.930 can very effectively improve water 00:27:53.930 --> 00:28:00.160 resources management using Landsat. 00:28:00.160 --> 00:28:03.530 A lot of efforts have been made to 00:28:03.530 --> 00:28:06.000 position:86% clarify the value of Landsat.  What are the benefits?   00:28:06.000 --> 00:28:07.790 What’s the return on the investment 00:28:07.790 --> 00:28:10.490 position:58% that we have?  And as the numbers you 00:28:10.490 --> 00:28:12.730 position:58% see here shown, there’s a pretty wide 00:28:12.730 --> 00:28:15.320 range but the numbers are pretty 00:28:15.320 --> 00:28:18.280 position:58% large.  In the case of the study done 00:28:18.280 --> 00:28:20.300 position:56% by the Western States Water Council, 00:28:20.300 --> 00:28:22.480 in extrapolating the value of what 00:28:22.480 --> 00:28:24.520 position:56% Idaho is doing with water across the 00:28:24.520 --> 00:28:26.480 position:56% rest of the western US, the estimate 00:28:26.480 --> 00:28:28.080 position:59% is that there’s a potential savings of 00:28:28.080 --> 00:28:30.620 position:58% $100 million a year in improved water 00:28:30.620 --> 00:28:33.770 position:70% resources management from the use of Landsat. 00:28:33.770 --> 00:28:35.160 The American Society for 00:28:35.160 --> 00:28:38.110 position:59% Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, the 00:28:38.110 --> 00:28:39.600 position:58% largest geospatial and remote sensing 00:28:39.600 --> 00:28:41.500 organization in this country, 00:28:41.500 --> 00:28:43.370 position:59% estimated just under a billion dollars 00:28:43.370 --> 00:28:45.320 position:59% a year benefits, and in a recent study 00:28:45.320 --> 00:28:49.610 position:56% conducted by the company Booze-Allen 00:28:49.610 --> 00:28:52.060 position:59% they’re estimating benefits perhaps as 00:28:52.060 --> 00:28:54.330 large as $7.5 billion per year. 00:28:54.330 --> 00:28:56.840 Pick any number on this page. The 00:28:56.840 --> 00:28:59.290 thing is that Landsat does 00:28:59.290 --> 00:29:01.390 position:58% economically contribute to addressing 00:29:01.390 --> 00:29:05.740 societal needs on a daily basis. 00:29:05.740 --> 00:29:08.040 position:59% OK.  I want to talk a little bit about 00:29:08.040 --> 00:29:12.280 where we are today with Landsat.  I 00:29:12.280 --> 00:29:14.670 said at the beginning that Landsat 00:29:14.670 --> 00:29:17.370 started in 1972 and we’ve been 00:29:17.370 --> 00:29:19.350 position:59% providing images for a long, long time 00:29:19.350 --> 00:29:21.150 position:58% – 40 years - but the fact is, is that 00:29:21.150 --> 00:29:22.920 we’ve been charging for the images 00:29:22.920 --> 00:29:26.190 through most of Landsat’s history 00:29:26.190 --> 00:29:27.290 position:59% because that was the government policy 00:29:27.290 --> 00:29:28.390 position:58% that we operated under.  For the most 00:29:28.390 --> 00:29:29.950 position:59% part of the 40-year Landsat record, we 00:29:29.950 --> 00:29:31.400 sold images for the cost of 00:29:31.400 --> 00:29:34.950 position:56% reproduction, which at its low point 00:29:34.950 --> 00:29:38.520 position:58% was $200 an image covering 110 by 100 00:29:38.520 --> 00:29:42.140 position:59% miles.  That’s a lot of money.  And in 00:29:42.140 --> 00:29:46.430 its high point, it was over $4,000. 00:29:46.430 --> 00:29:47.910 As you can imagine, that’s a lot of 00:29:47.910 --> 00:29:50.540 position:56% money, particularly for agriculture, 00:29:50.540 --> 00:29:52.920 position:56% natural resources, forestry types of 00:29:52.920 --> 00:29:56.350 applications.  And so in October of 00:29:56.350 --> 00:29:58.220 position:59% 2008, the USGS made a bold decision to 00:29:58.220 --> 00:30:00.020 position:59% make the entire Landsat archive, which 00:30:00.020 --> 00:30:02.030 position:56% by the way, right now is more than 3 00:30:02.030 --> 00:30:04.600 position:56% million images in here going back to 00:30:04.600 --> 00:30:07.530 position:59% 1972, and we made those data available 00:30:07.530 --> 00:30:11.530 to anybody.  Anybody.  At no cost. 00:30:11.530 --> 00:30:13.390 position:58% And this has started a new revolution 00:30:13.390 --> 00:30:16.080 in the use of Landsat data. Even 00:30:16.080 --> 00:30:18.720 position:59% though we hoped would a new era of use 00:30:18.720 --> 00:30:20.160 position:59% would happen, it’s occurring at a rate 00:30:20.160 --> 00:30:21.850 that we just simply didn’t expect. 00:30:21.850 --> 00:30:25.260 position:59% Here’s a chart that shows how the data 00:30:25.260 --> 00:30:28.010 are flowing out of our facility in 00:30:28.010 --> 00:30:29.850 Sioux Falls, South Dakota.  Let me 00:30:29.850 --> 00:30:36.060 position:58% start with a little history.  When we 00:30:36.060 --> 00:30:37.730 position:59% were selling data, our best sales year 00:30:37.730 --> 00:30:39.600 ever was the early 2000s and we 00:30:39.600 --> 00:30:41.720 distributed about 21,000 00:30:41.720 --> 00:30:43.790 images.  That’s a good number. 00:30:43.790 --> 00:30:46.390 The first year we made Landsat data 00:30:46.390 --> 00:30:49.320 position:56% free, we distributed about a million 00:30:49.320 --> 00:30:51.310 images, and now we’re distributing 00:30:51.310 --> 00:30:52.630 position:56% about 3 million per year.  The rates 00:30:52.630 --> 00:30:54.330 position:56% are growing and we’ve been sending a 00:30:54.330 --> 00:30:56.730 position:58% lot of data out.  We’re sending those 00:30:56.730 --> 00:31:01.770 position:59% data to over 180 countries.  And we’re 00:31:01.770 --> 00:31:05.290 position:59% using more imagery in our archive than 00:31:05.290 --> 00:31:08.810 we’ve ever used before. 00:31:08.810 --> 00:31:11.110 position:59% In 2008, before we made all data free, 00:31:11.110 --> 00:31:14.280 position:56% our estimate is that users purchased 00:31:14.280 --> 00:31:21.560 7.7% of this collection of imagery 00:31:21.560 --> 00:31:24.510 from around the world. Now that we 00:31:24.510 --> 00:31:26.620 position:56% have a free data policy, the numbers 00:31:26.620 --> 00:31:30.650 position:58% are up to about 65% and in fact if we 00:31:30.650 --> 00:31:35.130 position:56% just look at the images that are not 00:31:35.130 --> 00:31:36.720 position:58% completely cloudy it’s close to about 00:31:36.720 --> 00:31:38.290 80%.  So, it’s a big number. 00:31:38.290 --> 00:31:40.400 So all of a sudden, this investment 00:31:40.400 --> 00:31:42.810 that the taxpayers have made is now 00:31:42.810 --> 00:31:44.650 being distributed far and wide and 00:31:44.650 --> 00:31:47.310 position:58% being put to use for peaceful uses to 00:31:47.310 --> 00:31:49.150 try to understand and better manage 00:31:49.150 --> 00:31:50.970 our natural resources. 00:31:50.970 --> 00:31:53.000 position:59% Now, just a quick footnote, if anybody 00:31:53.000 --> 00:31:55.500 position:56% in here is interested in looking for 00:31:55.500 --> 00:31:59.280 position:58% Landsat imagery, they’re available on 00:31:59.280 --> 00:32:01.340 position:58% the Web.  Here are two websites and I 00:32:01.340 --> 00:32:04.050 position:56% believe the addresses are on the set 00:32:04.050 --> 00:32:05.560 position:56% of handouts that were at the back of 00:32:05.560 --> 00:32:07.600 the room.  You can go search for 00:32:07.600 --> 00:32:09.270 images in our archive, look at the 00:32:09.270 --> 00:32:12.220 position:58% coverage from 1972 to the present, if 00:32:12.220 --> 00:32:14.060 you see something you like, you can 00:32:14.060 --> 00:32:16.880 download it either in a very large 00:32:16.880 --> 00:32:20.590 format that’s for scientific and 00:32:20.590 --> 00:32:24.700 applications uses or in jpeg forms 00:32:24.700 --> 00:32:26.410 that you can look at in full 00:32:26.410 --> 00:32:29.760 position:58% resolution to really see what’s going 00:32:29.760 --> 00:32:33.070 on. And I will emphasize that the 00:32:33.070 --> 00:32:34.720 position:58% data are available to anybody through 00:32:34.720 --> 00:32:36.140 this site and it’s at no charge. 00:32:36.140 --> 00:32:37.180 position:56% OK.  Now, at the beginning I said we 00:32:37.180 --> 00:32:38.170 have two satellites are still in 00:32:38.170 --> 00:32:39.840 position:59% orbit.   Landsat 7 was our most recent 00:32:39.840 --> 00:32:47.770 satellite.  It was launched in 1999 00:32:47.770 --> 00:32:51.730 position:59% and so that means it’s actually now on 00:32:51.730 --> 00:32:54.560 position:58% its 13th year, so it’s old.  This was 00:32:54.560 --> 00:32:56.170 position:59% a satellite, by the way, designed with 00:32:56.170 --> 00:32:58.640 position:56% an expected life expectancy of about 00:32:58.640 --> 00:33:01.020 position:59% five years and so we’re getting better 00:33:01.020 --> 00:33:03.480 performance than planned. 00:33:03.480 --> 00:33:05.870 position:59% It’s collecting over 350-400 images of 00:33:05.870 --> 00:33:09.660 various parts of the globe every 00:33:09.660 --> 00:33:11.560 single day, and all of those images 00:33:11.560 --> 00:33:14.580 are available.  But it has a small 00:33:14.580 --> 00:33:18.210 position:56% mechanical problem. In 2003 there is 00:33:18.210 --> 00:33:20.710 position:58% a mechanical failure on the Landsat 7 00:33:20.710 --> 00:33:22.420 position:58% satellite that results in the loss of 00:33:22.420 --> 00:33:25.560 position:80% about 22% of all of the information in every image. 00:33:25.560 --> 00:33:26.850 Here is what it looks like if we’re 00:33:26.850 --> 00:33:28.740 position:58% looking at the Greater Washington, DC 00:33:28.740 --> 00:33:34.160 Area.  From the center of the image 00:33:34.160 --> 00:33:36.120 position:56% radiating out, you’ll see these data 00:33:36.120 --> 00:33:38.680 gaps, these venetian blind effects, 00:33:38.680 --> 00:33:40.770 where there’s a loss of imagery. 00:33:40.770 --> 00:33:42.450 This data still have terrific 00:33:42.450 --> 00:33:44.020 position:58% scientific value.  They still help to 00:33:44.020 --> 00:33:46.930 position:58% understand the changing Earth but for 00:33:46.930 --> 00:33:48.050 some users the data are 00:33:48.050 --> 00:33:52.870 compromised.  But it’s the best we 00:33:52.870 --> 00:33:54.010 have and we continue to collect and 00:33:54.010 --> 00:33:59.850 position:70% make very practical use of Landsat 7 imagery. 00:33:59.850 --> 00:34:00.850 In case you’re trying to figure out 00:34:00.850 --> 00:34:03.430 where we are, there’s the Dulles 00:34:03.430 --> 00:34:06.710 Airport area, the DC area, so we’re 00:34:06.710 --> 00:34:13.830 position:63% somewhere around here, between the gaps. 00:34:13.830 --> 00:34:15.090 Probably, one of the more amazing 00:34:15.090 --> 00:34:17.530 position:56% stories in the history of Landsat is 00:34:17.530 --> 00:34:22.230 position:56% our Landsat 5, which was launched in 00:34:22.230 --> 00:34:28.250 1984.  It’s 27 years old and was 00:34:28.250 --> 00:34:31.180 position:59% designed the last three years and it’s 00:34:31.180 --> 00:34:34.090 still in orbit now. Unfortunately, 00:34:34.090 --> 00:34:36.130 position:58% we’ve recently had some bad news.  In 00:34:36.130 --> 00:34:39.110 position:59% November of 2011, it had an electronic 00:34:39.110 --> 00:34:45.560 position:59% failure that has caused us to turn off 00:34:45.560 --> 00:34:50.060 the imaging systems and to do an 00:34:50.060 --> 00:34:51.810 position:59% investigation of whether or not we can 00:34:51.810 --> 00:34:53.740 correct the problem. 00:34:53.740 --> 00:34:55.070 And so the flight engineers 00:34:55.070 --> 00:34:57.080 responsible for Landsat 5 have been 00:34:57.080 --> 00:34:59.130 position:56% investigating ways to return this to 00:34:59.130 --> 00:35:01.670 position:56% service; our hope is to turn it back 00:35:01.670 --> 00:35:03.780 on by May in time to image the 00:35:03.780 --> 00:35:05.880 northern hemisphere growing 00:35:05.880 --> 00:35:07.300 season. It’s very important for 00:35:07.300 --> 00:35:10.730 agricultural purposes. 00:35:10.730 --> 00:35:12.280 position:59% Or we may switch to our old instrument 00:35:12.280 --> 00:35:13.590 position:58% that was turned off in the late ‘90s, 00:35:13.590 --> 00:35:14.900 called the Multispectral Scanner 00:35:14.900 --> 00:35:16.850 System.  It’s not as good as the 00:35:16.850 --> 00:35:18.310 thematic.  But it’s all up in the 00:35:18.310 --> 00:35:21.650 position:59% air.  For now, we’ve got one satellite 00:35:21.650 --> 00:35:33.130 flying and collecting images. 00:35:33.130 --> 00:35:36.010 position:56% The good news, and it is great news, 00:35:36.010 --> 00:35:37.830 is that the next Landsat is getting 00:35:37.830 --> 00:35:40.840 ready for launch. Through a 00:35:40.840 --> 00:35:42.310 position:58% partnership between NASA and the U.S. 00:35:42.310 --> 00:35:44.640 position:59% Geological Survey a mission called the 00:35:44.640 --> 00:35:48.020 position:59% Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM) 00:35:48.020 --> 00:35:51.510 position:56% is being built.  NASA is responsible 00:35:51.510 --> 00:35:53.210 for all of the complicated space 00:35:53.210 --> 00:35:54.820 flight components and the USGS is 00:35:54.820 --> 00:35:56.600 building the ground system and will 00:35:56.600 --> 00:35:58.810 position:59% take over operations after it’s placed 00:35:58.810 --> 00:36:02.260 in the orbit.  LDCM, which will be 00:36:02.260 --> 00:36:05.350 named Landsat 8 once launched, is 00:36:05.350 --> 00:36:06.530 going to continue this record of 00:36:06.530 --> 00:36:07.620 position:59% providing seasonal coverage year after 00:36:07.620 --> 00:36:08.830 year of the globe. 00:36:08.830 --> 00:36:10.290 position:58% It’s going to be done in a way that’s 00:36:10.290 --> 00:36:11.460 consistent with all the other 00:36:11.460 --> 00:36:13.020 position:59% Landsats, so the imagery we’ll acquire 00:36:13.020 --> 00:36:15.190 next year from Landsat 8, will be 00:36:15.190 --> 00:36:19.000 position:75% comparable to all the other data in the archive. 00:36:19.000 --> 00:36:22.360 position:58% And so this continues the long record 00:36:22.360 --> 00:36:23.990 and while it’s designed for a five- 00:36:23.990 --> 00:36:27.660 position:56% year life with consumables fuel that 00:36:27.660 --> 00:36:30.920 position:58% will last for, perhaps 10 years, that 00:36:30.920 --> 00:36:32.840 position:58% may mean that 10 years from now we’re 00:36:32.840 --> 00:36:34.920 talking about a 50-year record. 00:36:34.920 --> 00:36:37.540 Landsat will continue to be the 00:36:37.540 --> 00:36:38.540 position:59% longest continuous record of the Earth 00:36:38.540 --> 00:36:39.480 ever collected. 00:36:39.480 --> 00:36:42.200 Now, LDCM is going to have some new 00:36:42.200 --> 00:36:43.590 instruments on it - better spectral 00:36:43.590 --> 00:36:46.230 coverage and more advanced imaging 00:36:46.230 --> 00:36:47.210 capabilities than we’ve ever 00:36:47.210 --> 00:36:48.440 position:59% had.  There’s a bunch of jargony stuff 00:36:48.440 --> 00:36:51.690 in this slide, but the key point is 00:36:51.690 --> 00:36:54.570 position:56% that we will have better data and we 00:36:54.570 --> 00:36:58.200 position:73% will hopefully start having it early next year. 00:36:58.200 --> 00:37:00.810 position:59% And just to provide some evidence that 00:37:00.810 --> 00:37:03.190 position:58% I’m not making any of this up, here’s 00:37:03.190 --> 00:37:05.900 position:58% some of the images of the two primary 00:37:05.900 --> 00:37:08.060 instruments, the Operational Land 00:37:08.060 --> 00:37:09.800 Imager and the Thermal Infrared 00:37:09.800 --> 00:37:11.650 position:59% Sensor, as well as the spacecraft that 00:37:11.650 --> 00:37:13.380 position:56% those instruments are being attached 00:37:13.380 --> 00:37:16.920 to. The spacecraft and instruments 00:37:16.920 --> 00:37:18.650 will be then put into a rocket and 00:37:18.650 --> 00:37:21.270 position:63% sent into space in January of next year. 00:37:21.270 --> 00:37:24.660 position:56% So, that’s Landsat 8.  And that will 00:37:24.660 --> 00:37:31.050 get us to 2018, maybe longer.  That 00:37:31.050 --> 00:37:32.500 position:58% means it’s now time to start thinking 00:37:32.500 --> 00:37:34.410 position:56% about Landsat 9.  The involvement of 00:37:34.410 --> 00:37:36.300 space system and satellites takes a 00:37:36.300 --> 00:37:39.320 long time.  The estimates are 5-6-7 00:37:39.320 --> 00:37:42.410 position:59% years from conception till launch, and 00:37:42.410 --> 00:37:47.160 position:58% so we have to start now if we want to 00:37:47.160 --> 00:37:48.710 ensure the continued coverage. 00:37:48.710 --> 00:37:49.820 position:58% Through a series of decisions made in 00:37:49.820 --> 00:37:53.640 position:58% the federal government, some starting 00:37:53.640 --> 00:37:56.440 position:58% with the Office of the President, the 00:37:56.440 --> 00:37:58.840 position:58% National Space Policy came out with a 00:37:58.840 --> 00:38:03.400 strong commitment to land 00:38:03.400 --> 00:38:05.770 position:56% observations, land remote sensing or 00:38:05.770 --> 00:38:09.700 imaging, and said that the USGS 00:38:09.700 --> 00:38:12.230 position:58% Director with NASA will work together 00:38:12.230 --> 00:38:13.470 in maintaining a program for 00:38:13.470 --> 00:38:16.860 position:70% operational land remote sensing observations. 00:38:16.860 --> 00:38:18.360 position:59% The President, in his budget submitted 00:38:18.360 --> 00:38:20.210 for 2012, followed up by that by 00:38:20.210 --> 00:38:22.550 position:56% suggesting that not only do we start 00:38:22.550 --> 00:38:24.770 position:58% looking at the development of Landsat 00:38:24.770 --> 00:38:28.870 position:58% 9 and 10 but that the program will be 00:38:28.870 --> 00:38:37.540 position:78% moved to the USGS through Department of Interior,. 00:38:37.540 --> 00:38:40.680 position:56% And so, Dr. Pecora proposed the idea 00:38:40.680 --> 00:38:45.460 position:56% of Landsat, Project EROS in 1966 and 00:38:45.460 --> 00:38:48.340 the 2012 the recommendation is to 00:38:48.340 --> 00:38:51.690 position:56% return it to the USGS.  Now, if this 00:38:51.690 --> 00:38:53.970 position:56% happens, it will be done through the 00:38:53.970 --> 00:38:56.520 position:58% same close partnership with NASA that 00:38:56.520 --> 00:38:58.040 there always is.  They design space 00:38:58.040 --> 00:39:01.830 missions and instruments and their 00:39:01.830 --> 00:39:03.510 expertise is unmatched.  But the 00:39:03.510 --> 00:39:06.790 budgetary and management home of it 00:39:06.790 --> 00:39:07.770 will be shifted to this agency. 00:39:07.770 --> 00:39:10.250 Now, as we all know, it was a tough 00:39:10.250 --> 00:39:13.480 position:56% budget year; we were not left out in 00:39:13.480 --> 00:39:15.590 position:59% the cold but we have a small amount of 00:39:15.590 --> 00:39:18.140 planning money to begin making 00:39:18.140 --> 00:39:20.700 decisions in advance of building 00:39:20.700 --> 00:39:24.520 position:59% Landsat 9 and so the future continues. 00:39:24.520 --> 00:39:26.280 So let’s just wrap up by thinking 00:39:26.280 --> 00:39:31.940 about a few things.  Let’s start by 00:39:31.940 --> 00:39:34.360 realizing that the planet was 00:39:34.360 --> 00:39:36.680 different 40 years ago.  There were 00:39:36.680 --> 00:39:39.050 less than 4 million people on Earth 00:39:39.050 --> 00:39:42.230 position:58% and that equates to 9.4 acres of land 00:39:42.230 --> 00:39:44.330 per person on the planet.  But the 00:39:44.330 --> 00:39:49.400 world is shrinking and for Landsat 00:39:49.400 --> 00:39:51.320 position:59% that is one of those standards that is 00:39:51.320 --> 00:39:52.730 being used around the world to 00:39:52.730 --> 00:39:56.100 understand how it’s shrinking. 00:39:56.100 --> 00:39:59.480 position:56% The data from Landsat are being used 00:39:59.480 --> 00:40:02.340 position:56% to address many societal issues on a 00:40:02.340 --> 00:40:05.550 daily basis.  When Landsat 7 was 00:40:05.550 --> 00:40:09.650 position:58% launched, we were looking at a planet 00:40:09.650 --> 00:40:10.970 position:56% with 6 billion people, a growth of 2 00:40:10.970 --> 00:40:16.660 position:61% billion people over the 27-year period. 00:40:16.660 --> 00:40:21.540 position:56% In 2013, when we’ll launch the LDCM, 00:40:21.540 --> 00:40:23.860 we’re over 7 billion people. We can 00:40:23.860 --> 00:40:25.390 position:56% use free Landsat data to look at the 00:40:25.390 --> 00:40:28.140 position:56% changing Earth to understand how our 00:40:28.140 --> 00:40:31.020 actions are changing the planet and 00:40:31.020 --> 00:40:33.050 position:59% how we may better manage it so that we 00:40:33.050 --> 00:40:34.620 are not leaving it in a condition 00:40:34.620 --> 00:40:37.850 position:67% that’s unsuitable for the next generation.  00:40:37.850 --> 00:40:41.170 position:59% And when we get to the end of the LDCM 00:40:41.170 --> 00:40:42.950 line we’ll be 7.5 billion people. 00:40:42.950 --> 00:40:45.350 position:56% Because of this continuing growth of 00:40:45.350 --> 00:40:49.510 position:56% the human race, the shrinking planet 00:40:49.510 --> 00:40:51.980 position:58% is increasingly challenged to support 00:40:51.980 --> 00:40:53.460 our needs. This ability to use the 00:40:53.460 --> 00:40:57.320 position:83% perspective of space is really a very critical thing. 00:40:57.320 --> 00:41:00.230 So if we’re serious about natural 00:41:00.230 --> 00:41:02.070 position:56% resources management, we really need 00:41:02.070 --> 00:41:04.620 to have an investment in the tools 00:41:04.620 --> 00:41:06.660 that are needed to allow us to 00:41:06.660 --> 00:41:10.070 position:58% understand how the planet is changing 00:41:10.070 --> 00:41:11.470 position:56% so that we make wise decisions.  Our 00:41:11.470 --> 00:41:13.460 hope is that Landsat legacy will 00:41:13.460 --> 00:41:15.930 continue and will help build on the 00:41:15.930 --> 00:41:19.050 position:56% wise decisions and the effective use 00:41:19.050 --> 00:41:20.920 of our planet’s resources. 00:41:20.920 --> 00:41:24.100 We’ll just close by referencing a 00:41:24.100 --> 00:41:26.030 position:59% quote that was just published a couple 00:41:26.030 --> 00:41:28.920 of weeks ago by Robert Kennedy from 00:41:28.920 --> 00:41:31.860 Oregon State University in which in 00:41:31.860 --> 00:41:34.620 his article reflecting on how using 00:41:34.620 --> 00:41:38.010 remote sensing contributing to the 00:41:38.010 --> 00:41:39.450 understanding of the Earth. Dr. 00:41:39.450 --> 00:41:40.860 Kennedy concluded that, “As the 00:41:40.860 --> 00:41:42.060 position:56% longest-running continuing satellite 00:41:42.060 --> 00:41:43.220 image data set for land processes, 00:41:43.220 --> 00:41:44.850 Landsat data provide unparalleled 00:41:44.850 --> 00:41:46.680 witness to the enormous changes 00:41:46.680 --> 00:41:49.890 occurring on Earth since 1972.” 00:41:49.890 --> 00:41:51.610 position:59% With more than 3 million images in the 00:41:51.610 --> 00:41:54.040 position:59% archive, we have clear evidence of the 00:41:54.040 --> 00:41:55.890 position:56% incredible changes to the Earth that 00:41:55.890 --> 00:41:57.210 position:59% have happened since 1972.  And so with 00:41:57.210 --> 00:41:58.290 position:56% that, I want to thank you for paying 00:41:58.290 --> 00:42:00.730 position:70% attention and I am happy to answer questions. 00:42:00.730 --> 00:42:05.730 [Applause]